MinSheng - Art Museum

The MinSheng Art Museum by Approach Architecture Studio is the second reincarnation of a project located in Shanghai, China. This is one of the largest cultural centers in Shanghai - galleries, museums, handicrafts, seminars, etc. in this region. The concept of redevelopment is to shape the contemporary art of displaying space while keeping the Industrial look as vivid as possible.

The route of visitors has been worked out, now the movement between the halls, rooms and expositions is carried out using smoothly added stairs, corridors and a courtyard, between the old and new walls.

The total area of the art museum area construction project is about 3000 square meters, and the building area is about 2500 square meters, including 1000 square meters occupied by the main exhibition hall and four small exhibition halls with a total area of 1500 square meters. Added additional features for visitors - lockers, information bureaus, cafe, bookstore, office, VIP rooms, courtyard, etc.

Project: MinSheng - Art Museum

Location: 570 Huaihai west road, Shanghai, China

Architects: Liang Jingyu / Approach Architecture Studio

Completion: May 2008

Requirements for structural elements

 The structures of industrial buildings should be designed using standardized elements of industrial production, widely using prestressed structures.

Prefabricated structures and parts should be used only when they are fully factory-ready, which excludes the need for external and internal plastering and other finishing works. Plaster is allowed to be used in cases where it is required by sanitary and hygienic or technological conditions.

Structural schemes are chosen as standard, the use of which makes it possible to maximize the unification of standard sizes of building structures and parts and provides an economic solution to buildings and structures.

The supporting structures of buildings and structures should, as a rule, be designed taking into account the possibility of completing the production of zero-cycle works before installing the frame.

The use of open metal steel structures with a fire resistance limit of 0.25 g in industrial buildings of II degree of fire resistance is allowed:

- in one-story buildings, regardless of the fire hazard category of the industries located in them;

- in multi-storey buildings with production facilities of categories D and D, when these buildings do not use flammable liquids as fuel.

In the design of steel structures, lightweight rolled sections, welded and bent sections and high strength steels should be widely used.

Structural elements of buildings and their interfaces should be designed taking into account maximum interchangeability.

The reinforced concrete frame of single-storey buildings should be taken, as a rule, in the form of frames consisting of columns clamped at the bottom and girders (trusses or beams) pivotally connected to them. The reinforced concrete frame of multi-storey buildings should

take on a frame scheme with rigid nodes. It is allowed to use a mixed structural scheme - frame in the transverse direction and tie in the longitudinal direction - with the transfer of wind and other horizontal loads in this direction to ties or pylons.

In buildings with a height of up to four floors, inclusive, with loads on interfloor floors up to 2500 kg / m2, columns, as a rule, should be on all floors of the same cross section. Exceptions can be made for the columns on the ground floor. The number of types of reinforced concrete columns of various sections in buildings with a height of more than four floors should be no more than two (not counting the columns of the first floor). Columns of workshops without cranes, as well as columns of workshops with cranes with a lifting capacity of electric general-purpose cranes of up to 125 tons inclusive and a single-tier arrangement of cranes, as well as special cranes equivalent in load to a 125-ton general-purpose crane, should be designed as prefabricated reinforced concrete.

Crane beams with spans of 6 and 12 m for electric overhead traveling cranes of general purpose of light and medium operation with a lifting capacity of up to 30 tons inclusive should, as a rule, be designed with precast reinforced concrete prestressed.

In single-storey buildings with spans of the same height, in the presence of cranes of different lifting capacity in individual spans of the building, it is recommended that the level mark of the crane console be taken constant, changing the nominal level of the crane rail head by an amount equal to the difference in the heights of the crane beams (taking into account the rail fastening) intended for cranes of different carrying capacity. In the event that the arrangement of crane rails at different levels on the same column significantly complicates the design of brake beams or trusses, it is recommended to level the crane rails using shims for crane beams.

The main typical reinforced concrete load-bearing structures (beams, trusses) of roofs with slopes and flat roofs of one-story buildings with a roof made of soft materials should be calculated for the design load 350; 450; 550; 650; 750 and 850 kg / m2.

The indicated loads do not include the dead weight of the main supporting structures.

For floors of multi-storey buildings, normative payloads should be taken equal to 500; 1000; 1500; 2000 and 2500 kg / m2.

Roofs and slabs should generally be designed without purlins using large slabs.

It is recommended to use prestressed beams for spans of up to 18 liters (inclusive) as the main load-bearing structures of building coatings, in which the device of the upper branched wiring of the communications network is not required.

In the presence of an extensive network of communications of significant dimensions, located in the structural space of the coatings, as well as in case of heavy loads on the supporting structures from the coating and overhead transport, it is recommended to use trusses.

The load-bearing structures of the coatings with a span of up to 30 m, inclusive, and under-rafter beams (trusses) with a span of 12 m, should be pre-stressed prefabricated reinforced concrete.

It is recommended to design the coverings of industrial buildings from precast prestressed reinforced concrete slabs. In buildings with a pitch of supporting structures of 12 m, reinforced concrete slabs with dimensions of 3 X 12 m and additional ones - 1.5 X 12 m should be used. 1.5 x 6 l, and also use lightweight concrete slabs. For non-insulated coatings, where it is allowed by operating conditions, asbestos-cement corrugated sheets of a reinforced profile should be used, and in other cases, reinforced concrete slabs.

Supporting structures for technological and auxiliary equipment, including stack structures, must be designed prefabricated. In all possible cases, the equipment should be installed on its own foundations, using the bearing capacity of the equipment itself.

When designing the walls of industrial buildings, the following should be followed:

- height and length of prefabricated wall elements must be multiples of 600 mm; non-insulated walls - from sheet materials (for example, from reinforced asbestos-cement sheets) and from pre-stressed reinforced concrete panels 12 or 6 m long;

for walls of heated buildings, with the exception of buildings with a wet indoor regime, use panels of lightweight concrete and asbestos cement with an effective insulation;

- for walls of heated buildings with a wet internal regime of premises, use reinforced concrete two-, three-layer panels with an effective insulation protected by a vapor barrier.

The walls of industrial buildings should be designed, as a rule, panel. The use of brickwork should be limited to only buildings with a volume of 5,000 m3 or less, depending on local conditions. For buildings with panel walls, it is allowed to use brickwork for the basement, when in the lower part of the building it is necessary to provide for a large number of openings for various purposes (for example, gates, doors and openings for the passage of engineering communications), as well as for buildings with walls made of asbestos-cement sheets. The dimensions of the panels in height should be taken as 1.2 m or more, multiples of 0.6 m. The use of panels with heights of 1.2 and 1.8 m is recommended.

The bottom of the first panel in height must, as a rule, be aligned with the level mark of the finished floor of the building.

Buildings with panel walls should, as a rule, be solved with the use of strip glazing with a height of 0.6 m.

Construction solutions and structural elements of buildings should ensure the possibility of rational placement of artificial lighting fixtures.

Industrial buildings should be designed with roofless roofs. Attics are allowed to be designed as an exception in cases caused by production requirements.

Open technological openings in ceilings intended for vertical movement of goods should be fenced. The fence must be at least 900 mm high and at a height of at least 150 mm from the floor - solid.

Platforms and technological openings in the interfloor ceilings of premises intended for the storage or use of flammable or combustible liquids must be fenced with bumpers of at least 150 mm in height made of non-combustible materials. In the doorways of these premises, ramps with a height of at least 150 mm should be arranged.

Along the outer walls of buildings, blind areas should be provided with a width exceeding the removal of the cornice by 200 mm, but not less than 500 mm with a slope of 0.03-0.1 directed from the walls of the buildings.

In the case of laying foundations on subsiding soils, the width of the blind area for buildings with a height of up to 8 m without an organized drainage of water from the roofs must be at least 1.5 liters. For taller buildings, the width of the blind area must be increased by 0.25 m for every 4 m of the building height, but not more than up to 5 m. With an organized drainage of water from the roofs of buildings up to 8 m high, it is allowed to reduce the width of the blind area to 0.75 - 1 m.

Technical conditions for the design and calculation of girder span structures

 The main regulatory document in the design is the technical specifications. With the development of the theory of structures, the emergence of new building materials and structural forms, as well as the accumulation of experience in operating existing bridges, the technical conditions are revised and supplemented from time to time. The current technical specifications in the field of steel structures of bridges are currently the "Technical specifications for the design of railway, road and city bridges and pipes" CH 200-62. The technical conditions given below, when covering the issues of calculation and design, are designated for brevity "TU" with the number of the corresponding paragraph.

The technical conditions provide a uniform approach of numerous design organizations to checking the dimensions of elements of bridge structures and establish a number of design requirements, the fulfillment of which contributes to the improvement of the manufacturability of the structures and to their durability.

Technical requirements for bridge structures can be united by one concept of "reliability", which is increasingly acquiring the rights of a generalized quality criterion in all areas of technology.

Scientific substantiation of the reliability of bridge structures, while maintaining their efficiency, comes down first of all to determining reasonable safety factors in the form of design factors: overload n, uniformity k and working conditions m. The need to introduce these factors into the calculations is caused by the known uncertainty of the true values of the initial calculated data: design loads, mechanical strength characteristics of the building materials used, as well as some discrepancy between design schemes and the actual operation of structures, possible deviations of the actual dimensions of the elements from those taken in the calculation.

Possible combinations of simultaneously acting loads are divided into three groups: basic combinations, which include permanent loads and temporary vertical loads; additional combinations, in which, in addition to the loads included in the main combinations, other loads (wind, ice, braking), except for construction loads and seismic ones, can be included, and, finally, special combinations, which include, in addition to other loads, also seismic and construction load.

The greater the intensity of possible loads simultaneously taken into account by the calculation, the less the probability of coincidence in time of their maximum values.

This circumstance is taken into account by a decrease in the overload coefficients n when calculating strength and stability for temporary loads included in additional and special combinations.

Overload factors for constant loads are given in two oscillations: a larger and a smaller unit (SN 200-62, p. 115), since there is a possibility of deviation of constant loads in both directions from the values of the standard loads, and the greatest absolute value of the design force is achieved, in some cases, with the lowest values of the calculated constant load. An example of such a case is the calculation of the calculated effort from the combined action of constant and temporary vertical loads with a two-digit line of influence for the sought effort, when there is an inequality: m> n - 1, where m is the ratio of the intensity of the temporary load to the intensity of the constant one, and n is the ratio of the greater , in magnitude, the area of the section of the line of influence of one sign to the area of another sign.

The technical specifications give an indication of the incompatibility of individual loads included in additional and special combinations. The simultaneous action of such loads is unrealistic. So, for example, the maximum wind pressure cannot act on the superstructure simultaneously with horizontal transverse impacts of a railway moving load, since at the design wind pressure, the wheel flanges are tightly pressed against the leeward rail and, therefore, cannot produce impacts.

Calculations of metal bridge structures are performed according to the first and second limiting states. The calculations for the first limit state include checks for strength, stability and endurance.

Strength is characterized by the ability of the structure to resist possible loads and influences without breaking the integrity and without the development of externally noticeable plastic deformations.

Violation of shape stability is characterized by the loss of the design shape (rectilinear, flat) by structural elements under the action of compressive stresses that have reached a critical value.

When the stability of the position is lost, a shift or overturning of the structure occurs.

For the loss of strength and stability, it is sufficient that the possible loads and effects at least once during the service life of the structure exceed the permissible limits.

Therefore, when determining the forces in the strength and stability calculations, the possible maximum values of the forces in the tested structural elements must be taken into account, by means of the overload coefficients n and the dynamic coefficient 1 + JJ.

Endurance may not be guaranteed if the design effort can be repeated multiple times. Such a repeatability of efforts is possible only under normal operating loads that do not exceed their standard values.

Therefore, when checking endurance, the overload factors are not taken into account, that is, they are assumed to be equal to 1. The dynamic factor is taken into account in the endurance calculations, since the dynamic effect of a moving load is regular.

The calculations for the second limiting state include checking the rigidity of the structure, which is understood as its ability to undergo elastic deformations under a temporary vertical load that do not exceed the normalized limits.

In these calculations, the overload factor and the dynamic factor are not considered.

It should be noted that the stiffness standards have not yet had sufficient scientific basis and need to be clarified through additional research.

The need for a scientific substantiation of the stiffness standards is becoming especially acute in connection with the expanding use of high strength steels in bridges with an increased ratio of the yield strength to the elastic modulus.

The coefficient of inhomogeneity k is taken into account by the Technical Conditions during the transition from standard resistances of building materials to design resistances, which are usually used in calculations.

The values of the coefficients of the working conditions m in those special cases when they are not equal to 1 are given in further instructions for the calculation.

Recently, calculations on electronic computers have become widespread, performing not only arithmetic, but also logical operations, which makes it possible, in particular, to automatically obtain an optimal solution when inputting initial data into the machine in various versions.

It is difficult to overestimate the role of using such machines in engineering calculations.

However, this circumstance not only does not eliminate, but even increases the need for the engineer to understand the “play of forces” in the structure and the effect on the magnitude of the efforts of certain changes in the initial data. With the widest use of electronic computers, the engineer must also have the ability to quickly determine the approximate values of the forces using a slide rule for the so-called "sketch" calculations.

The material presented below is intended to highlight the procedure for determining efforts and making approximate calculations.

Program and theory of functionalism

 The theoretical and artistic basis of functionalism was formulated by Le Corbusier - an artist, thinker, but above all an architect of extraordinary intellectual and artistic power, which gave decisive impetus to the development of world architecture for four decades. He was born in Switzerland but worked mainly in Paris.

Le Corbusier gained worldwide fame with his works, which were systematically published in 1923 in the magazine "Esprit Nu-vo" (New trends) under the title "Towards architecture", his views on the city, expressed in the book "Urbanism" (Urban Planning, 1925), where he demanded the liberation of city centers for transport, an increase in the area of green spaces, the use of a free building system. His first projects and buildings include a serial single-family house (1914) made of monolithic reinforced concrete, the Citroen house, a villa in Paris (1922) and a house project in which he combined the advantages of an isolated cottage and a large residential building. The exhibition pavilion "Esprit Nouveau" designed by Le Corbusier in the form of a living cell at the International Exhibition of Decorative Arts became, together with the pavilion of Soviet constructivism, the only new phenomenon. Le Corbusier's town-planning sketches - cities with 3 million inhabitants (1922) and three years later the "Plan Voisin" reconstruction of the center of Paris, also received wide publicity. Both projects were based on a free plan, it was proposed to use tower houses, and transport transport on several levels.

The second most significant contribution of Le Corbusier is to define the basic principles of functionalist architecture, which he formulated in 1927 in five points: 1) the columns that raise the house above the ground78; 2) roof garden; 3) free plan; 4) horizontal window; 5) free curtain facade. The formulation of these principles was preceded by the development of a reinforced concrete structure scheme, in which Le Corbusier in 1914 reduced the frame system to two tectonic elements: a support and a ceiling. In this way, the form of a functionally organized plan got rid of direct dependence on the solution of the structure and the placement of its elements.

In this sense, the principle of separating the supporting structure from the planning solution is one of the most profound changes that the 20th century made to architecture. Five points and the indicated scheme became not only a definition of the stylistic features of functionalist architecture, but also one of the most concise formulations of recipes for architectural creativity in general.

These principles Le Corbusier used in the solution of two houses at the exhibition of the dwelling in Stuttgart (1927) and the classically simple Villa Savoy in Poissy. Subsequent buildings - a villa in Garches, a pavilion of Swiss students in Paris (1930-1932) and many years of urban planning work on the city plan of Algeria (1930-1942), from the very first version included curvilinear residential buildings, -? also show that Le Corbusier, in contrast to Perret, who understood reinforced concrete purely constructively, uses this material rather as a means to implement his ideas in the field of form, relying on classical compositional rules. He understood architecture as a thoughtful and precise harmony of illuminated volumes.

A significant contribution to the program of functionalist architecture was made by the Bauhaus, whose works and theoretical principles were published in the so-called Bauhausbucher (Bauhaus Books). In the spirit of functionalism, E. Neufert developed the norms of relations and sizes concerning the design of structures and interiors. The main bearer of the ideas of functionalism in Czechoslovakia was the "Club of Architects" and the internationally renowned magazine "Stavba", which had been published since 1921 under the direction of G. Stary. In Slovakia, since 1931, the magazine "Forum of Art, Construction and Interior" has been published. The Stavba magazine mediated local architecture from French, German, Dutch and was one of the first to inform about constructivism in the Soviet Union. The merit of this magazine was the creation in Czechoslovakia of that period of its own architecture program, to which it gave a progressive character from a cultural and social point of view. The meaning was seen in the rationality and orderliness of all human labor. The program of "Stavba" and the Club of Architects (1924) already emphasized the social essence of architecture, which must fully correspond to the meaning and needs of its time. Architects were seen as organizers of life, and creativity, which was focused only on the aesthetic aspects of architecture at the expense of the social, was proposed to be considered false. The main task of architecture was seen in improving the general standard of living.

Building roof construction

 Coverings of buildings with a roll roof are allowed to be designed both flat and with slopes.

Flat roofs are recommended to be used mainly in multi-span buildings without lanterns with internal gutters, with a developed network of engineering communications of large sections, located in a space limited

dimensions of load-bearing structures, as well as in cases where it is possible to reduce the cost of artificial ventilation in the summer due to a layer of water on the roof, which protects the production premises from overheating in summer.

For structural elements of rolled roofs, the following names are adopted:

- the base for the roof - flat or leveled (by grouting on the plates or screed on the insulation) rigid surface for gluing roll materials;

- the main waterproofing carpet - layers of roll materials that are glued to mastics on the planes of the roofs;

- additional waterproofing carpet - additional layers of roll material, which are glued to mastics to strengthen the main waterproofing carpet in valleys, at the places of abutment to walls, mines and other structural elements;

- protective layers - made of gravel embedded in the roofing mastic, which protect the waterproofing carpet from mechanical damage, weathering and increase the durability of the roofs.

Roll roofs, depending on the slope, are divided into flat with a slope of less than 2.5% and pitched with a slope greater than or equal to 2.5%. The largest slopes of the main slopes of rolled roofs should not exceed 25%.

Exceeding the slopes is allowed only when it is necessary to install the device in certain areas of the coating (for example, in the places where the roofs adjoin vertical walls, on the sides of the lamps, on the surface of the shells, etc.), provided that refractory adhesive mastics are used in these areas and, if necessary, additional fastening the rolled carpet to the base with nails and washers.

In the places where the roofing carpet adjoins vertical surfaces, transition sections with a slope of up to 100% (up to 45 °) should be provided.

Roofs made of roofing material on cold mastics should not be used with slopes of more than 10%.

Rolled roofs with more than four layers are used only in operated roofs or on roof sections (in places where equipment is installed, workplaces or walkways, etc.).

In the southern regions with a summer design temperature of the outside air (average temperature at 1 pm of the hottest month) of 25 ° C and higher in buildings for which the calculation of the thermal stability of attic roofs is required, to reduce the effect of solar radiation, rolled roofs can be cooled with water (irrigated or filled with a layer water 25-60 mm thick), or cover with protective layers of materials with increased reflectivity (for example, light-colored gravel, slabs of concrete, reinforced cement and other light materials).

Water drainage from the roofs of multi-span buildings of industrial enterprises with flat and pitched roofs, as a rule, is recommended to be provided through internal drains.

In buildings where internal gutters are not feasible for technical or economic reasons, the removal of water from the roofs should be provided for by external gutters or, in extreme cases, by eaves.

In flat roofs without lanterns with a building width of up to 72 w and the absence of storm sewers, external water drainage is allowed.

The type of roofs and drainage systems should be selected on the basis of a feasibility study and regulatory documents for the design of internal gutters.

To increase the operational reliability of roofs, it is recommended to reduce the number of places with structures passed through the roof (pipes, shafts, etc.) by combining these structures, if necessary, into separate sections or blocks.

In the working drawings, it is necessary to indicate the slopes of the roofs, the types and brands of mastics (if necessary, and the requirements for their antiseptic treatment), the type and brands of roll and other materials used for the construction of roofs and their structural parts (junctions, overhangs, etc.).

In order to avoid tears in the waterproofing carpet, the joints between the slabs (panels) of the coating should be filled with mortar, concrete on fine gravel or lightweight concrete.

In order to reduce the construction time, reduce the cost and increase the industrialization of roofing works, it is necessary to provide for the implementation of coatings from large-sized and complex panels that combine bearing and heat-insulating functions; In this case, it is advisable to stick one layer of waterproofing carpet on the coating slabs in the factory.

The joints between such slabs are filled with mortar or concrete and pasted over with strips of fiberglass or roofing material used for the roofing. The width of the strips should be 300-350 mm.

In places where expansion joints are installed in the load-bearing structures of coatings, roll roofs must be protected with compensators made of galvanized roofing steel, which must ensure the leak-proofness of the roof at the seam in case of temperature-sedimentary deformations of the coating.

In order to prevent the possibility of the formation of defects in roll roofs in the form of swelling, folds and ruptures along the folds, which usually appear at high humidity of the insulation, mainly due to insufficient vapor barrier of coatings.

Vapor barrier, if it is required by the project, as a rule, should be made of roofing materials and mastics adopted for the construction of a waterproof carpet.

As a vapor barrier in coatings made of slabs (panels) of cellular or lightweight concrete, the inner surface of the slabs is painted with enamels, oil and other resistant paints according to appropriate preparation. It should be borne in mind that the paint vapor barrier on the surface of the coating slabs should be periodically renewed.

In places of abutment to vertical surfaces, the layers of the glued vapor barrier should be raised to a height equal to the thickness of the insulation, and in the places of expansion joints, vapor insulation should overlap the edges of the lower compensator.

Thermal insulation of coatings, as a rule, should be performed from inorganic slab materials (expanded clay concrete, aerated concrete, foam concrete, gas glass, foam glass, perlite concrete, vermiculite concrete, foam and gas silicate, foam and gas silicite, rigid mineral wool slabs, etc.) less than 6 kg / cm2.

Loose thermal insulation materials (pumice, tuff, expanded clay, perlite, vermiculite, etc.) are allowed for use in limited areas of coverage.

The use of non-rigid insulation is allowed only with appropriate justification and provided that only rot-resistant materials are used for these purposes and taking into account possible changes in the physical and technical qualities of the insulation during operation.

To protect the glued vapor barrier from damage, plate heat-insulating materials should be laid on hot roofing mastics. It is allowed to lay panel materials on a layer of dry fine-grained sand up to 10 mm thick.

Flat roofs should have a four-layer waterproofing carpet made of tar or rot-resistant bituminous materials and a protective layer of gravel embedded in tar or antiseptic bitumen mastic.

The waterproofing carpet of flat operated roofs should be made of five layers of tarp or rot-resistant bitumen roofing materials. It is recommended to arrange protective layers mainly with the use of board materials.

Pitched roll roofs should have a three- or two-layer waterproofing carpet with protective layers of gravel embedded in the roofing mastic (with a slope of up to 10%), or with the use of armored roofing material (with large slopes).

The choice of roof design, depending on the slope and the roll materials used, should be made taking into account the data given in table. 135. It should be borne in mind that protective layers of gravel embedded in roofing mastics increase the operational reliability and durability of roofs made of roll materials.

Sections of valleys of pitched roofs in width: from 1.5 to 2 m should be reinforced with a sticker of two additional layers of roofing material and protected from above with a layer of gravel embedded in hot roofing mastic.

At the junctions of roofs to parapets, walls, shafts and other structural elements, the main layers of the waterproofing carpet must be brought to the top of the transitional sloped sides and fixed there with roofing galvanized nails every 200-250 mm.

The main waterproofing carpet at the junctions should be reinforced from above by gluing layers of additional waterproofing carpet on mastics with increased heat resistance. The number of layers of the additional waterproofing carpet should correspond to the number of layers of the main waterproofing carpet.

The upper edge of the additional waterproofing carpet at the junctions to walls, parapets and other protruding structural elements should be fixed to nailed concrete or to antiseptic wooden slats, galvanized with roof nails every 200-250 mm at a height of 250 mm from the base of the roof, and on roofs filled with water , - at a height of 300 mm.

The edge should be protected from above from water infiltration with tiles made of concrete, reinforced cement or textures made of galvanized roofing steel, aluminum or polyvinyl chloride.

Parapet concrete slabs must be fixed to the walls (for example, with metal pins). In the places where the roofs adjoin, the first layer of the additional waterproofing carpet must be covered with the main waterproofing carpet by at least 150 mm.

Each subsequent layer of the additional waterproofing carpet must overlap the underlying one by at least 100 mm and adhere to the main waterproofing carpet.

An additional waterproofing carpet at the junctions of pitched roofs must completely overlap the transition edge.

In places of passage through the coatings of cylindrical pipes, pipes of cast iron, galvanized roofing steel or polyvinyl chloride with a height of 200-300 mm with flanges should be installed.

When draining water from roofs on flat roofs, water intake funnels should be placed along each row of columns, and on pitched roofs in lowered areas.

The system of internal gutters includes water intake funnels, outlet pipelines, risers and outlets into the storm or industrial (withdrawing conditionally clean water) sewerage system or into open outlets to the surface of the earth: trays and cuvettes.

Internal drainage networks are not allowed to be combined with fecal sewerage.

When installed on pitched and flat, unexploited roofs, the funnels of internal gutters must have water intake hoods with a blank cover.

The required water level on water-filled roofs is maintained by installing removable overflow pipes at a given height. In this case, the greatest throughput of the funnel is ensured by installing a blind cover 5-10 mm below the upper part of the overflow pipe (water horizon).

If a flat roof is divided by expansion joints or dividing walls into separate compartments (cards), then each compartment should have at least two water intake funnels with a compartment area of not more than 700 mg.

For expansion joints of pitched roofs, funnels should be installed on both sides of the joint. The connection of these funnels to one riser or to a common suspension line is allowed only with the installation of compensating joints that ensure tightness and elasticity of the connection.

The waterproofness of rolled roofs in the places of installation of drainage funnels should be ensured by gluing layers of the main waterproofing carpet on the flange of the bowl of the funnel and strengthening these layers:

- by sticking a layer of fiberglass or burlap;

- gluing two layers of roofing material;

- installation of a pressure ring on hot or cold roofing mastic;

- the device of protective layers of gravel embedded in hot mastic.

In buildings with free discharge of water from the roof, to prevent soaking of the walls, the eaves should be at least 450 mm.

To prevent overloading of the bearing structures of the coatings, which is observed in winter, it is not allowed to discharge water from those places of the roofs on which snow melts due to the internal heat of buildings, to areas where thawing does not occur or is less intense.

External drainage of water from flat roofs of buildings without lanterns is allowed in the absence of rainwater drainage on the territory of enterprises and the width of the building is not more than 72 m.

In unheated buildings with combined coatings, the internal drainage of water from the coatings is allowed to be used in the presence of production heat, providing a positive temperature in the building, or special heating of drain funnels and pipes. Internal drainage is not recommended for buildings with load-bearing wooden or metal-wooden roof structures. In heated buildings with combined coatings, it is necessary to design, as a rule, an internal drainage of water from the coatings.

In buildings up to 72 mm wide and up to 10 m high, with appropriate justifications, it is allowed to design an external water drain.

In buildings with internal gutters, the use of external water drainage from extreme spans or from higher middle spans is not recommended, with the exception of water drainage from lanterns.

The total length of one or several roof slopes with a slope to one side with an external drainage of water in heated buildings with a combined coating should not exceed 36 liters, and in unheated buildings - 50 m.

When designing an internal drainage of water from pitched roofs, it is necessary:

- the calculated value of the deflection of the supporting structures of the valleys should be taken no more than 1/200 for wooden floors and 1/400 for reinforced concrete;

- the longitudinal slopes of the valleys to the water intake funnels should be at least 1% for wooden floors and 0.5% for reinforced concrete;

- the distance between the funnels along the valleys should be no more than 24 m with wooden floors and 48 m with reinforced concrete;

- at the intersection of the roof with a fire wall, funnels should be placed on both sides of this wall, it is not allowed to pass water through the holes in the fire wall;

along the perimeter of the covering, arrange a parapet with a height of at least 250 mm above the level of the highest point of the valley.

When designing an organized drainage of water from coatings by means of gutters and external downpipes, the following guidelines must be observed:

- the slope of the roof at the locations of the wall gutters must be at least 15%;

- longitudinal slope of gutters - at least 2%;

- gutter depth - not less than 120 mm;

- distance between drainpipes - no more than 24 m;

- the cross-sectional area of the drainpipes must be taken at the rate of 1.5 cm2 of the cross-section of the drainpipe per 1 m2 of the roof area.

When the height of the slopes in the coating is more than 4 m, the strip of the lower roofing 2 w wide from the wall should be protected from the impact of falling water and pieces of ice by laying protective gratings, slabs or gravel backfill. In places where water is discharged from an elevated part of buildings, an additional layer of rolled roofing material must be glued to the lower rolled roofs, regardless of the laying of protective gratings or slabs on them.

Water drainage from skylights with vertical glazing with a skylight cover width of more than 12 m and with sloped glazing with a canopy cover width of more than 9 m (in buildings with internal drainage of water from the roofs) must be designed internally.

In case of external drainage of water, it is recommended to use ventilated cornices near external walls and lanterns in heated buildings.

Sculpture of Ancient Greece

The sculptors of Ancient Greece have given the world works that have fascinated many generations. The oldest sculptures known to us originated in the archaic era. They are somewhat primitive: their motionless posture, their hands tightly pressed to the body, their forward gaze are dictated by the shape of the stone block from which the statue was carved. She usually has one leg extended forward to maintain balance. Archaeologists have found many of these statues, depicting naked young men and girls dressed in loosely flowing outfits. Their faces are often enlivened by a mysterious "archaic" smile.

In the classical era, the main craft of Greek sculptors was the creation of statues of gods and heroes to decorate temples; to this were added secular images, for example, statues of statesmen or winners of the famous Olympic Games.

In the beliefs of the Greeks, the gods look like ordinary people. They were portrayed as people, but strong, well-developed physically and with a beautiful face. Often people were portrayed naked to show the beauty of a harmoniously developed body.

In the 5th century BC. the great sculptors Miron, Phidias and Polycletus, each in their own way, renewed the art of sculpture and brought it closer to reality. Young naked athletes of Polycletus, for example his "Dorifor", lean on only one leg, the other is left free. Thus, it was possible to unfold the figure and create a sense of movement. But the standing marble figures could not be given more expressive gestures or complex poses: the statue could lose balance, and fragile marble could break. These troubles could be avoided by casting bronze figures. The first master of complex bronze castings was Miron - the creator of the famous "Discobolus".

Many artistic achievements are associated with the name Phidias: he supervised the decoration of the Parthenon with friezes and pediment groups. Magnificent is his bronze statue of Athena on the Acropolis and a 12-meter-high statue of Athena in the Parthenon covered with gold and ivory, which later disappeared without a trace. A similar fate befell a huge statue of Zeus seated on a throne, created from the same materials, for the temple in Olympia.

No matter how we admire the sculptures created by the Greeks in the heyday, they may seem a little cold to a modern person. True, the coloring that revived them at one time is absent; but their indifferent and similar faces are even more alien to us. Indeed, the Greek sculptors of that time did not try to express any feelings or emotions on the faces of the statues. Their goal was to show perfect bodily beauty.

If in the 5th century BC. were created sublime and serious images, then in the 4th century BC. artists tended to express tenderness and gentleness. The warmth of life was given to the smooth marble surface by Praxitel in his sculptures of naked gods and goddesses. He also found an opportunity to vary the poses of the statues by creating balance with the appropriate supports. His Hermes, the messenger of the gods, rests on a tree trunk.

Until now, sculptures have been designed to be viewed from the front. Lysippos made his statues so that they could be viewed from all sides - this was another innovation.

In the era of Hellenism in sculpture, there is an increased craving for pomp and grotesque. In some works excessive passions are shown, in others an excessive closeness to nature is noticeable. At this time they began to diligently copy the statues of earlier times; thanks to copies, we today know many monuments - either irretrievably lost or not yet found. He created marble sculptures that conveyed strong feelings in the 4th century BC. e. Scopas. His greatest work known to us is his participation in the decoration of the mausoleum in Halicarnassus with sculptural reliefs. Among the most famous works of the Hellenistic era are the reliefs of the great altar in Pergamum depicting the legendary battle; the statue of the goddess Aphrodite found at the beginning of the last century on the island of Melos, as well as the sculptural group "Laocoon". It depicts a Trojan priest and his sons who were strangled by treacherous snakes; physical torment and fear are conveyed by the author with ruthless realism.

Stiffener placement

 Transverse stiffeners should be installed above the supports and in places where concentrated forces are transmitted.

The installation of these ribs can be limited to without checking the calculation of local stability, if the wall thickness of the bent beam is not less than Vso K where h is the design height of the wall, which is equal for a welded structure to the full height of the wall, and with a riveted structure - the distance between the risks of the belt corners closest to the axis of the wall.

If the wall thickness of carbon steel is less than 1koh, in addition to the above stiffeners, additional intermediate transverse stiffeners are installed.

The maximum permissible distances between adjacent transverse stiffeners are specified by the local stability calculation.

High beams with thin walls are also reinforced with longitudinal stiffeners. When installing one longitudinal rib, its distance from the compressed belt is recommended to be set equal to (0.20—0.25) h.

In the case of installing two or three longitudinal stiffeners, the first rib is recommended to be placed at a distance (0.15-0.20) / i, and the second rib at a distance (0.40-0.50) * h from the compressed belt. The third rib is usually placed in the tensile zone of the wall to increase the critical shear stress.

The width of the protruding part of a paired symmetric rib in the presence of some transverse stiffeners must be at least b 40 mm on each side of the wall, where h is in mm.

When the ribs are located on one side of the wall, the moment of inertia is calculated relative to the axis coinciding with the wall face closest to the rib. The rib thickness must be at least Vis of the width of the protrusion and at least 10 mm.

If there is no horizontal sheet in the upper chord of the riveted beam and the bridge beams are supported on this chord, the protruding parts of the transverse stiffeners must be fitted to the horizontal flanges of the flanges.

Purism

 New programmatic principles originated in France, where, under the name "purism", an artistic and later architectural movement arose, which in the early 1920s spread throughout Europe. The initial thesis of purism was formulated by Le Corbusier and the artist A. Ozanfant in 1918 in a work entitled “After Cubism” and later in the jointly published magazine Esprit Nouveau (1920-1925), which was accompanied by the slogan “The new spirit is the spirit of construction and synthesis guided by a clear idea. " Purism itself, however, meant, first of all, the reduction of architectural form to an elementary system of cubes, prisms, cylinders, cones and balls. Purism then often subordinated the system of these elementary geometric bodies to the principles of classical composition. He returned to Cezanne's idea that everything in nature and in human activity is based on original geometric forms. Purism relied on the idea that in architecture and in art what is needed is not deformation, but formation through selection and improvement. This led to the principle of economy of form and to the theory of the standard, which was one of the foundations of the purist aesthetics of mass production and mass consumption.

Purism, understood not only as a simplification of form, but as a movement associated with practical problems and found support in new constructive systems, opened the way to rationalism in the early 1920s. A. Loos contributed to the definition of the essence of purism even before the First World War. In critical articles, projects and buildings, he rejected embellishment in architecture and applied arts that had become an end in itself. However, the swap of the most significant projects he carried out only in the 20s - the villa

Tristan Tzara in Montmartre in Paris (1926) and the Villa Muller in Prague.

Stylizing the appearance of both buildings under a simple prism, in the interiors A. Loos, changing the surface and height of individual rooms, the degree of their illumination and color saturation, achieved the maximum contrast of the intense composition. Loos was the first in modern architecture to consistently implement the principle of terraced solutions in the project of the Babylon Hotel and residential buildings for Vienna. He considered ancient architecture to be the highest level of unity of purpose and beauty. He proceeded from this position when creating the project of the building "Chicago Tribgon" (1923), the appearance of which is a symbolic reminder of the forms of the Doric column73.

A group of Czech architects were also inclined towards purism. I. Khokhol with his projects of a dwelling house and a factory (1914-1915) outstripped the policy statement of purism. B. Foerstein, who had worked for A. Perre for a long time and was a direct bearer of the influences of modern French architecture in Czechoslovakia, also made original proposals; they also include I. E. Cole, the so-called purist four - K. Gonzik, J. Fragner, E. Lingart and V. Obrtl, whose ideas determined the nature of the association of architects "Devetsil", which arose in 1920.

Among the structures in the spirit of purism in Czechoslovakia, the crematorium in Nymburk (1921, authors B. Foerstein, B. Slama) and the Institute of Pathology in Prague (1920, author J. Spalek) should be noted. J. Gocar also adjoined purism, according to whose projects the schools built in Hradec Kralove became a step for Czech architecture in the transition from decorativeism to functional and simple architecture. The aspirations for purist simplicity in the early 1920s merged with the demands of poetic beauty, which laid the foundations of purely Czech artistic and literary poetism, theorist of which was K. Teige.

Basic principles of architectural design and calculation of beam spans

 Development of projects is carried out in two stages: technical design and working drawings.

In the technical project, fundamental issues are solved: the place of transition, material, system, breakdown into spans, the design of spans and supports and the procedure for organizing construction. An estimate is drawn up for the technical project, which determines the cost of the structure.

After the approval of the technical design, working drawings are developed.

When developing working drawings, the solutions provided for by the technical project are specified and detailed to the extent necessary for the production of construction work.

Bridge design begins with locating the bridge crossing in plan and defining the bridge opening.

When crossing small watercourses, the location of the bridge crossing is usually subordinate to the main direction of the traced road.

The larger the watercourse, the more reasons to search for the most advantageous place of its intersection, in which the river crosses at right angles in the narrowest part of it: in a flood-free area or an area with a minimum width of floodplains. At the same time, they strive to ensure that the river bed is distinguished by straightness and constancy of position, and the geological structure favored the laying of foundations of supports.

To ensure these conditions, in some cases it is allowed to deviate the road from the main direction. The final decision is made after drawing up and analyzing various options for the location of the bridge.

For each of the bridge crossing options, in turn, the most economically profitable and technically feasible bridge scheme must be found.

The search for this scheme is carried out by developing several options and research, in the process of which the question of the size of spans, the system of spans and the appointment of their general dimensions, the choice of the type of supports and their foundations is being resolved. When developing bridge options, the conditions for the manufacture and installation of spans, methods of erecting supports, construction time and architectural advantages of the structure should be taken into account.

In an effort to best meet all the conditions, you can make several competing options. When drawing up options, the accumulated experience in the design of such structures, data from science and practice, and available standard solutions are used.

Choosing a bridge layout is a creative, do-it-yourself challenge that cannot be built from recipes.

Sometimes you have to subordinate the breakdown to the transition profile. For example, in steep slopes, high bridge heights, deep river beds and soft soils in the channel section of the crossing, a single span solution may be appropriate, eliminating the need for intermediate supports.

Spanning can be tailored to architectural requirements, which is typical for urban environments and when designing unique bridges. As a rule, when staking out, typical dimensions of the design spans should be assigned.

The designation of the span dimensions and their placement along the length of the hole cannot be made in isolation from the span system, and when using continuous and cantilever systems, the breakdown can be subordinated to certain ratios between spans, at which the best use of the span materials is achieved.

With regard to the purpose of superstructure systems, it is impossible to give a summary of the rules for their correct selection.

When assigning a superstructure system, it is imperative to take into account its operational qualities - rigidity, convenience of protection against corrosion, cost of current maintenance.

In modern conditions, it is impossible to choose the right structure scheme without considering comprehensively the issues of statics, manufacturing conditions, installation and operation.

New features of systems and structural forms, based on taking into account the spatial work, manufacturing and installation conditions, have been identified only in individual structures and therefore do not provide sufficient material for generalizations.

When choosing a system, the question of the type of connection of elements must also be resolved.

Welded spans can save up to 10-15% of metal. The complexity of their manufacture is reduced by 15-20%. The factories have mastered the technology of their manufacture. The operating experience of welded spans has shown that, with a good-quality manufacture, they have a number of advantages over riveted ones: they are less susceptible to corrosion, and are more convenient for cleaning and painting.

In structures with solid walls, assembly welding is also not particularly difficult. Up to now, assembly welding has not become widespread in end-to-end span structures. In most modern structures, the assembly connection is carried out on high-strength bolts.

Building Code: Selection of sections in the beams of span structures with solid walls

 When selecting sections of beams, the correct choice of their height is important. The weight and vertical rigidity of the superstructure, the conditions for its manufacture, transportation and installation depend on the height of the beams.

In many cases, when driving on top, the height of the embankment at the approaches to the bridge depends on the height of the beams, and, consequently, the cost of these approaches.

Since when the beam is working for bending, its material is most fully used in the chords and much less at the neutral axis, then when selecting the cross-section of the beam, it is advantageous to take the wall high and thin, placing the material mainly in the chords.

The minimum permissible wall thickness of riveted beams is 10 mm; welded main beams - 12 mm. These limitations are caused by the desire to slow down the noticeable weakening of sheets by corrosion, and for welded beams, in addition, to reduce welding deformations.

For a given design bending moment M, the cross-sectional area of the beam F and, therefore, its theoretical weight can be represented as a function of the beam height h and the thickness of its wall b. You can find the minimum of this function by equating the derivative to zero.

In many cases, the height of the beams is assigned less than the optimal weight in terms of weight, in an effort to reduce the building height of the superstructure or to facilitate the conditions for its manufacture, transportation and installation.

The minimum permissible height of the beams is determined by the requirements for the vertical stiffness of the superstructure.

In existing road bridges with split main beams, which have solid walls, the ratio of the height of the beams to the span ranges from V12 to V20.

Accordingly to the increased rigidity of continuous beams, their minimum permissible height in the middle of the spans can be reduced in comparison with split beams.

The choice of the cross-sectional shape and dimensions of the chords of the main beams is of serious importance. Beams that do not work in conjunction with a reinforced concrete or steel slab are usually given a symmetrical I-section.

The dimensions of the flange corners in riveted beams should be related to the capacity of the horizontal sheet packages attached by the corners to the wall.

The thickness of the package of horizontal sheets, including the flanges of the belt corners and lining in the joints, should not exceed 4.5 diameters of the rivet hole, and the number of riveted bodies in the package should not exceed 7 with a rivet diameter of 23 mm and 8 - with a rivet diameter of 26 mm.

When riveting in two pneumatic hammers, one of which replaces the support, or on the bracket, the thickness of the package can be increased to 5.5 diameters, and the number of riveted bodies increased to 8 with rivets d = 23 mm and up to 9 with rivets d = 26 mm ...

The thickness b of the flange sheets of welded carbon steel beams should not be more than 50 mm, and of low-alloy steel - 40 mm.

The width of the unbordered overhang of the compressed belt of welded beams with a ride on top should not exceed 10 6 and 0.3 m in railway bridges;

in road and city bridges - 15 b and 0.4 m. Here b is the thickness of the belt.

If the limiting thickness and width of a single chord sheet do not provide the required chord area, and an increase in the beam height is undesirable, one of the ones shown in Fig. 337 belt shapes.

The area of the belt corners that attach the horizontal sheets to the wall should correspond to the area of the latter, accounting for approximately 30% of the entire area of the belt.

When this recommendation in cases of powerful beams is difficult to implement due to the limited range of angle bars, part of the required area of the beam can be placed in the form of vertical sheets (lamellas) between the beam wall and the flange corners or go to double-wall beams.

The width of the upper chords of the longitudinal and main beams of railway bridges with a ride on wooden crossbars, according to the working conditions of the crossbars for crushing, should be at least 240 mm.

The width of the overhang a of the belt package of riveted beams, counting from the outer row of rivets of the belt corners to the edges of carbon steel sheets, should be no more than 12 26, where 26 is the thickness of the package. With low-alloy steel sheets, a should be no more than 10 26.

To ensure the density of the package of belt sheets, the distance L from the edge of the package to the nearest row of rivets should be no more than 120 mm and 86, where 6 is the thickness of the thinnest sheet of the package.

The thickness of the sheets in riveted beams should be no more than 20 mm according to the conditions for punching holes on punching machines.

A well-chosen cross-section of the beam must meet the requirements of strength, endurance, manufacturability (ease of manufacture and installation) and, ultimately, cost-effectiveness in terms of material and labor costs with guaranteed operational reliability.

The design bending moments along the length of the beam change. The selection of the section of the beam is carried out, first of all, in the section with the maximum bending moment. As the bending moments decrease, the cross-section of the beam is reduced mainly due to the area of the chords.

In welded beams, the thickness and width of horizontal sheets are reduced; in riveted beams - the number of sheets in belt packs. The possibility of such a reduction should be provided for when selecting the section of the beam at the place of maximum bending moment, where the chords must be sufficiently powerful.

The sections of the beam, starting from which their area can be safely reduced, are usually determined graphically using a material diagram.

Pyramids of Ancient Egypt

 The period of Ancient Egypt spans over three millennia. The pyramids of ancient Egypt, built at this time, amaze people today. Since the era of the third dynasty and for centuries, the pyramids of Egypt have been and remain an unsurpassed masterpiece of architecture.

The very first pyramids in ancient Egypt were built in the form of steps. The only surviving step pyramid of Egypt is known - the pyramid of Djoser. It consists of six steps, and its height is about 62 meters. The descent from the entrance leads to the burial chamber. Underground galleries surround the pyramid from all sides except the southern one.

The pyramids, which are more familiar to modern man, arose with the improvement of the stepped pyramid. The construction of the first true pyramids of Egypt began in the fourth dynasty. The structure of a real pyramid is the same as that of a stepped one. Slabs of the required size were laid, and limestone blocks were used at the end. The first true pyramid was the Sneferu pyramid, which is also called the "Red Pyramid" and "Northern Pyramid". Its height is 105 meters, and the length of the base is approximately 220 meters.

The largest pyramid of ancient Egypt is the Pyramid of Cheops, which was erected around 2550 BC. The height of the ancient pyramid is currently 138 meters, and it consists of 203 steps. The structure covers an area of 52.6 thousand square meters, and its volume is about 2.7 million cubic meters. The pyramid is built of very strong material and the blocks are laid very evenly and precisely. There is no finishing stone at the top of the pyramid, which is found on many other pyramids. And scientists argue that it never existed. This means that the construction of the pyramid was not completed.

In Giza, there are two more large pyramids of the later pharaohs - Khafre and Menkaur. Unlike the pyramid of Cheops, these have large temples and burial places connected by a passage. The pyramid of Khafre is the second largest pyramid in Egypt. Nearby is a small pyramid, which, most likely, was built for Khafre's wife. Near the pyramid of Khafre is the famous Sphinx, which is the oldest surviving monumental sculpture. It is carved from a monolithic rock and represents a lion, whose face, according to scientists, is given a resemblance to Chefren.

The Menkaur pyramid is 10 times smaller than the Khafre pyramid, and unlike many other pyramids in Egypt, whose walls were covered with limestone, this pyramid uses granite, a material that is much more difficult to work with. The height of the pyramid was 66 meters earlier, now it is 55.5 meters. Both granite and limestone slabs were used in its construction. This pyramid differs from the earlier ones in that it has a rather complex structure of burial premises. At the entrance begins a corridor that leads to the vestibule, and behind the vestibule there was a tunnel that leads to a large hall, similar to a burial chamber. However, to the west of this hall there is another tunnel, which leads to the real burial chamber in which the sarcophagus was found.

Since the fifth dynasty, the pyramids have become much smaller. One of the famous pyramids of this time is the Unas pyramid, which is valuable due to the fact that the first burial texts carved on the wall were found in it.

The pyramids of Egypt are the only one of the seven wonders of the world that has survived to this day. They are captivating in their scale, arouse admiration and many guesses about how people without the use of technology could build structures so monumental.

The Pyramid of Cheops

 The Pyramid of Cheops was erected around 2550 BC and is the largest pyramid in Egypt. This pyramid was the tallest man-made structure for 3,800 years, until the opening of the Lincoln Cathedral of the Virgin Mary in 1300.

It has been estimated that the Cheops pyramid consists of more than 2 million stone blocks, each weighing about 2.5 tons, and some reaching 15 tons. The length of the base is about 230 meters, and the height is 146.6 meters, but now the pyramid is lower, since during the Middle Ages part of it was dismantled. The faces of the Cheops primamid are inclined at an angle of 51 or 52 degrees. According to scientists, the total weight of the pyramid is 5.9 million tons. It is believed that the construction of the pyramid lasted from 14 to 20 years, and its architect was the vizier of Cheops - Khemiun. Initially, the Cheops pyramid was covered with a special material on the outside, which made the surface smooth. However, over time, this coating collapsed, and now you can see the material that underlies the construction. Inside the pyramid of Cheops is decorated with decorative stones. The walls were covered with bright paint, from which there were practically no traces.

The only entrance to the Cheops pyramid is located on the north side and is 16 meters high. The burial chamber, in which the sarcophagi of the pharaohs are located, is located at a depth of 28 meters and is made of granite. The ceiling of the chamber is composed of nine granite blocks that weigh about 400 tons. At the top there are 5 separate niches, in four of which the ceiling is straight, and in one with a slope, which is done in order to avoid collapse under the weight of the structure.

The Pyramid of Cheops is the only pyramid that uses ascending and descending passages. One of its features is a huge slope called the "grand gallery". At the end of the gallery, there is a narrow passage leading to the "king's room", the walls of which are decorated with polished granite. Scientists believe that the "king's room" was a triumph of Egyptian geometry, since according to their calculations it was built according to the golden ratio. The sarcophagus is made of a red granite monolith, and its dimensions are larger than the entrance to the room. The sarcophagus was discovered open and no valuables were found in it. It is still unknown if it was intended for the body of the pharaoh. The Queen's Room is the smallest and is located in the center. On the eastern wall of the Cheops pyramid there is a niche in which, according to the Egyptologists, the statue of the Pharaoh's wife was located. The third, unfinished room, is located at a depth of 27.5 meters underground and is decorated very roughly, it does not have the luxury that is present in the other two rooms. Egyptologists believe that this room was supposed to become a burial chamber for the pharaoh, but Cheops changed his mind and ordered to place it higher.

The pyramid of Cheops is the main structure of the complex, which includes two burial temples built in honor of Cheops, three pyramids for his wives and several more pyramids that unite all the buildings into the complex. Queen Hetepheres, sister and wife of Sneferu and mother of Cheops were buried in one of the small pyramids.

The Pyramid of Cheops is one of the most famous mysteries of mankind, and the interest in its study on the part of historians, archaeologists, mathematicians and scientists from many other areas has not subsided for many millennia.

Landscape architecture, lawns, design and color scheme

 In landscape architecture, when designing a garden or park, it is customary to take into account four components: space, relief, reservoirs, vegetation. Relief plastic is an important element of the composition. Reservoirs, combined with the environment, visually enlarge the space. In a variety of vegetation, the color and texture of trees, shrubs, flowers and lawns play an important role. Of particular importance are road surfaces, stones, sculptures, gazebos combined with water, light and shadow.

Most of the gardens are composed of evergreen trees combined with groups of stones, water surfaces and lawns, decorated with fancy bridges, lanterns and various park structures.

For greater contrast, several dissimilar trees are usually planted together, planting in rows is avoided. Homogeneous trees are used only when it is necessary to create the impression of a grove or forest. Deciduous tree species, with the exception of cherries, are avoided to bring the composition to the fore. Pine, on the other hand, enjoys the well-deserved love of designers: cutting of roots and branches, their artificial garter creates the look of old, twisted trees, which usually attracts attention. The same bizarre shapes can be given to willow. Contrasts in color, shape of leaves, crowns are the subject of special attention.

The varieties of cryptomeria, maples, plum and cherry trees are very popular in landscape architecture. Among flowers, lilies, lotuses, irises, peonies and chrysanthemums are widespread.

Different types of trees are distributed in certain places: oaks and maples are used for the slopes of hills and mountains, pines, willows, bamboo, plums, etc. are used near water bodies.

Experts identify five types of gardens:

1. Rocky, oceanic - sea stones are used, the islands on the lake are high, rocky with large ledges for cascades; white sand is used for coastal areas, twisted pines are planted.

2. River - river boulders are used, the waterfall is made low. The river can be an artificial or natural channel that comes out from behind the hill; the lake is like a river flood, the central part of which is occupied by a wide sandbank with thickets of aquatic plants.

3. Mountain stream - a wild mountain stream and and a small channel; in the stream, where the speed and shallowness of the channel are combined, there is a significant number of river boulders and stones for the passage.

4. Ozerny - an extensive river bed that turns into a lake without islands, with a small amount of stones and numerous aquatic plants and grasses along the banks .; this type of garden does not have a waterfall. The source is hidden by hills or trees.

5. Sedge bog - all hills are low and rounded, stones are used only flat; on one side of the water there is a swamp with sedges, marsh grasses or bamboo, aquatic plants near the shore, from trees - plum, willow.

In addition, another type is known - "dry landscape", where stones are selected for a reservoir, a channel is developed, forms, however, instead of water, the channel is covered with gravel and sand.

Depending on the topography of the territory, 2 types of gardens can be distinguished - hilly (with artificial hills) and flat (flat). The first type of garden consists of hills and ponds. In a garden of the second type, a flat piece of land is transformed into a valley. Often one kind contains elements of another.

Lawn landscaping

The lawn is a very important part of any garden. Even the most spectacular flowers look good only against the background of a lawn or at least a fragment of it. A beautiful lawn is a magnificent backdrop that favorably sets off perennial plantings of flowers, shrubs and trees.

Of course, creating a lawn requires a lot of effort, but any area will look beautiful and well-groomed if there is at least a small lawn on it.

A good lawn requires careful preparation of the site and soil. For a lawn, it is advisable to select an open place with well-drained soil. It is very important to properly prepare the area, carefully level it, so that further mowing will be uniform and the lawn will have a beautiful, even color.

Lawns are sown with cereal grasses with small delicate leaves. The composition of lawn mixtures varies depending on the lawn: for slightly shaded areas, for areas with trampling (sports and playgrounds), etc.

Flower lawn decoration

There are many types of lawn flower arrangements. Each of them has its own purpose and characteristics.

A flower bed is a small to medium-sized flower garden that has a different geometric shape. The flower bed can be round, square, triangular or polygonal. Small flower beds are usually made flush with the lawn. For flower beds of a larger area, the center is raised. Flowers look very good on such convex flower beds and there is no stagnation of water. However, it is not necessary to raise the flowerbeds very high, since in dry weather they will dry out, and in rainy weather the soil will be washed off.

Flower beds are either carpet or floral. Low plants of various colors are planted on carpet beds. To maintain the clarity of the pattern, such plants are periodically sheared. In flower beds, annual, biennial or perennial flowering plants are used. Flower beds can be permanent or changeable. In small flower beds, the pattern is usually simple. To create it, 1-3 types of plants are used. If the flower bed is large, its drawing is more complicated, the number of plant species is greater. Such a flower bed requires careful maintenance, without which it quickly loses its appearance.

Color spots are a very beautiful, easy-to-use version of the color design of the lawn. They are created mainly from miniature or low-growing plants, which are sometimes supplemented by tall plants. The main requirements for the plants that make up a color spot are color brightness and varietal uniformity. There are 2 types of color spots - one-plane and three-dimensional.

Uniform spots are obtained using plants of the same height. In this case, the stain stands out against the background of the lawn only by its color.

Volumetric color spots are obtained through the use of plants of different height. In this case, low plants are the background, and higher plants rise above them in the form of blotches. It is very important to find plants that bloom at the same time.

A modular flower garden is based on a module, i.e. item of a specific size The entire area of the landscaped object is divided into squares, after which several modular squares are selected in the places designated for planting flowers, placing them in an arbitrary order: in the form of rectangles, corners, etc. Flowers are planted in the selected squares, and the rest of the area is sown with lawn grass, covered with gravel, pebbles, laid out with tiles, etc. In modular flower beds, low annuals with a clear bush shape that do not creep beyond the squares look especially beautiful.

In the decorative design of the lawn, single plantings or tapeworms also look very impressive. In this case, one plant is planted on the lawn. It can be an ornamental shrub, perennial or annual flowering plant. Choosing a plant in this case requires good taste, because a lonely plant catches the eye. Therefore, everything should be beautiful for him: flowers, leaves, stems, shape. In addition, it should be decorative from early spring to late autumn. The lawn should be beautiful and well-groomed, as well as the background on which the plant is planted. A group of trees, bushes, a wall of a building can serve as a background.

The most common methods of planting flowers are group planting. Groups can consist of any plants: perennial, biennial, annual. Group plantings from one culture or even one variety are very decorative. The number of plants to be planted depends on the size of the lawn or lawn. Planting density - on what kind of plants they are and for how many years they are planted. Groups can also be mixed, consisting of 2-3 species of plants in spring, summer and autumn flowering periods.

As an element of flower decoration for large areas of lawns, a rabatka can be used - a flower strip cut into the lawn. Its width is usually from 0.5 to 3 meters, its length is arbitrary. The rabatka can be single-color or multi-color (in this case, a simple or complex pattern is created), one-sided or two-sided for viewing, single-tiered - when all plants are of the same size, or multi-tiered, when tall plants are placed in the middle or in the background, and low ones along the edges. Also, the bed can be continuous, or broken into segments, when after a certain interval it is interrupted by a small flower bed or a large plant.

For bordering flower beds, groups, ridges, as well as for planting along paths, borders can be used. These are narrow one-, two- or multi-row stripes of flowers. Usually these are low, creeping plants with a dense bush. For the border, plants are selected so that it differs in color from the flower garden and creates a beautiful border for the entire composition. The main requirement for border plants is a compact bush, uniformity in height, and for flowering plants - friendly flowering.

One of the most beautiful mixed flower beds is the mixborder. However, it is quite complex and sophisticated and requires artistic taste. A mixborder cannot be created in one season - it “unfolds” in full force 3-4 years after planting, but with good care it lasts for many years. A mixborder is a fairly wide bed of irregular shape and of any size, which consists of a variety of plants planted in groups in the form of picturesque spots. Its peculiarity is that it must remain decorative throughout the season - from early spring to late autumn. Decorativeness is achieved primarily due to flowering plants, and secondly, due to a combination of crops, when the flowering of some is complemented by the ornament of the leaves of others, the silhouette of others, and all together forms a living picture.

Fundamentals of International Style

 Since the late 1920s, the principles of functionalism have become widespread and further developed in Scandinavia, Denmark, England, Switzerland, Italy, Spain, Poland, Hungary and Romania. In addition to Europe, they appeared in the USA, South America and Japan. The merit in the spread of functionalism around the world belongs to well-known architectural magazines, international exhibitions and more and more frequent personal contacts, exchange of opinions and, of course, the architectural and theoretical activities of the founders of functionalism abroad. At the International Exhibition in New York (1932), a publication was published, the name of which "International Style" later became a generally accepted concept defining the functionalist architecture of the 30s and subsequent years. The international style program was formulated at the International Congress of Contemporary Architecture (CIAM), which met in 1923 in Switzerland.

At the congress, a charter of modern architecture was adopted and proclaimed, emphasizing its social characteristics, orientation towards new technology and materials, standardization, economy, and the creation of public housing. The Athenian Charter (1933), which defined the character of the city as the organization of the main functions: labor, housing, recreation, and transport, had a similar significance for the establishment of the later generally accepted concept of the city. With the widespread dissemination of functionalism, the principles of which, starting from the 40s, began to be widely used in architecture and urban planning, there was a danger of their mechanical application, which manifested itself primarily in private construction activities.

Organic architecture

 Already in the period of widespread spread of functionalism throughout the world, signs of its differentiation are becoming more and more obvious. Simultaneously with the departure from the stylistically unified form of functionalism, the first criticisms of his one-sided utilitarian approach to architecture appear in individual works. Some architects already at the end of the 30s began to consider the functionalist system of shaping and its theoretical concept obsolete.

One of the first signals to criticize the theoretical concept of pre-war functionalism was the idea of organic architecture, formulated by F.D. on the other hand, from a reaction to the rationalism prevailing in American architecture. The conceptual core of the theory of organic architecture was the requirement for a balance between its material and mental sides, as well as a new understanding of the actual essence of the structure, which Wright saw not in the walls and ceiling, but in the space they formed and life in it. However, this idea was expressed by the ancient Chinese philosopher Lao Tzu. Wright understood the word "organic" in the meaning of "integral", "internally whole", He called for the creation of a harmonious space that meets its purpose, economical, creating an atmosphere of poetic peace, and not dead solidity. A building of this type was E. Kaufman's villa "Waterfall", the shape of which naturally grows out of a rocky terrace, as well as Wright's own dwelling "Teilisin West" in Arizona (1938), which organically included natural forms. It was also the winter residence of his private architecture school, Teilisin Partnership.

In the 40s, individualism and artistic originality led Wright to new functional and formal structures, similar in nature to the constructive structure of some natural forms. The crystal and the spiral became at that time a motif often found in Wright's work.

Among his works stands out the complex of buildings of the administrative and research center of the firm "Johnson" in Ransine (1936-1939), solved almost exclusively on the basis of soft curves. Of the post-war works, the building of the Guggenheim Museum in New York (Museum of Modern Art) should be noted, designed in the form of a rising and expanding reinforced concrete spiral. Wright's pronounced individualism and the tenacity with which he sought ways to make functional and formal solutions of modern architecture more natural83 made a deep impression after the Second World War, having a strong influence on the further development of world architecture.

The Italian theoretician B. Dzevi became a prominent proponent of this idea in the 1940s and 1950s. He summarized his thoughts on organic architecture, the features of which derive from the forms and mode of life, in his book Towards Organic Architecture (1945). In response to criticism of the one-sidedness of functionalism, there were attempts to further theoretical development and improvement of its concept through attention to mental and biological functions.

R, Neutra, and the Czech architect L. Jacques, who considered the surrounding nature as the widest and most natural human habitat - "habitable nature" (1940-1947), had similar views on the natural living qualities of the natural landscape to Wright's views. The idea of organic decentralization of the city was put forward in the 1940s by E. Saarinen (City, 1943), who, guided by this idea, already in 1913 developed the urban planning solution for Tallinn, and in 1918 for Helsinki.

Window openings

 It is recommended to use steel bindings from bent and rolled profiles, wood and aluminum - depending on the operating conditions of buildings and technical and economic indicators.

Openings intended only for illumination should be filled with glazing in blind window frames. Opening transoms in such bindings should be provided only for double glazing (for wiping glass).

To fill openings intended only for aeration, it is recommended to use pivoting, folding, sliding or removable shields or blinds. The feathers of the blinds should be with a slope of 45%.

Unclosed openings in the walls are allowed to be arranged in warehouses and unheated workshops of buildings erected in areas with an estimated external temperature of -25 ° C and above.

Window openings in places of height difference, when the underlying coating, combustible or hardly combustible, should be filled to a height of up to 8 m from the level of this coating with blind bindings made of non-combustible materials, glazed with reinforced glass or glass brick masonry. For double glazing, the use of reinforced glass is mandatory only for the outer sashes.

The requirements of this clause do not apply to those buildings in the elevated part of which production facilities of categories D are located.

In fireproof walls, above the annexes of auxiliary premises, it is allowed to arrange window openings with wooden frames with ordinary glazing, provided that the coatings of the annexes are aligned and fireproof. In unclosed openings in the walls, there must be special devices (cornices, protective surfaces, etc.) to prevent rain and snow from entering the premises.

Sash window sashes or other opening devices in rooms in which the required air exchange is carried out by aeration should be placed so that the distance from the floor level to the bottom of the openings (sash sashes) intended for air flow during the warm season is no more than 1, 8 m, and at least 4 m to the bottom of the openings intended for air flow during the cold season.

Sash windows and skylights or other opening devices in rooms designed for aeration must be equipped with easily controllable and stable devices for opening and installing them in the required position.

The height from the floor to the bottom of the light and combined openings should be set depending on the provision of standard illumination of the workplaces located at the outer walls.

If there are openings in the fire walls separating the premises intended for the production of categories A, B and C, and it is impossible to protect these openings with fire doors or gates, communication between adjacent rooms should be carried out through open (without doors) vestibules with a total length of at least 4 m, designed based on one sprinkler head per 1 m3 of vestibule area. The enclosing structures of the vestibule must be fireproof with a fire resistance limit of at least 1 hour.

The dimensions of doorways in height should be multiples of 300 mm, window openings - 600 mm, gates - 1200 mm.

The height of the window openings should be calculated from the top of the sill boards, and the height of the openings for the gate - taking into account the crossbar of the framing frame.

A gate in the light for the passage of road vehicles must be at least 200 mm higher than the means of transport, i.e., at least 2.4 m. The width of the gate must

exceed the maximum width of the means of transport by at least 600 mm and must be at least 1.8 m. On the outside of the gate, ramps with a slope of no more than 0.1 should be arranged.

Naturam PRIMUM Cognoscere Rerum

 “Naturam PRIMUM Cognoscere Rerum” is the motto of the Australian National University and it translates as “First of all, you need to know the nature of things”.

The four-tiered construction at the Australian National University in Canberra, Australia, by Lyons Architects, houses three faculties in International Relations and Comparative Politics. Situated at the entrance to the campus, the building sets the tone as a center for international interaction between students and researchers.

As a corner object, the building outlines the corner where the streets meet. The facade is cut with organic geometric shapes and does not obstruct the beautiful view of the surrounding hills.

The ground floor houses the public area - the foyer, study and lecture rooms, public cafes - all located around the center of the public area, which acts as a center for meetings and communication.

The upper level of the building contains premises for scientific and research work of university staff, attacks by students and guests, who can get peace and quiet here.

Indoor classrooms are located around a central space that allows for ease of communication.

Project Name: Hedley Bull Center, Australian National University

Address: Garran Road, Acton, Canberra, Australia

Architects: Lyons Architects

Land area: 5200 sq m

Building area: 1400 sq m

Functionalism and international style

 Since the mid-1920s, the progressive forces of European avant-garde architecture have united on the basis of a common program of functionalism, 77 which was the next stage of development on the path from a superficial simplification of architectural forms to an integrated rationality of architecture. The new generation, brought up on the principles of personal modernity, developed it into a new way of functionalist thinking.

The main thesis of functionalism was the slogan “form follows function”. The requirement for the expediency of a solution, understood not only as an aesthetic problem, but also as a technical, economic, social and cultural one, prevailed over constructive romanticism and artistic expression. The main in the concept of architecture was the requirement of functionality, understood not as something unchanging, constant, but rather as a perspective that needs to be studied, precisely formulated and even created.

The goals of this period included the renewal of the relationship between man and his environment, which aroused theoretical interest in changes in architecture in connection with the reconstruction of the social conditions of society. This social issue led architecture to the need to solve new forms of housing, which became the central motive of the functionalism of the interwar period. At the same time, there was a desire for widespread use of reinforced concrete, new structural systems and materials to create a new architectural morphology. Construction was viewed as a way of organizing life in a biological, social, technical, economic and psychological sense. Functionalism was understood not only as a complex of new functional, constructive and aesthetic principles of architectural creativity, but also as a specific way of thinking.

Development of international style

 In the 30s, new centers for the development of modern architecture appeared in the world, which adopted the views of functionalism. On its basis, the construction of a number of significant buildings was carried out, which made it possible to free architecture from the schemes of surviving academism and national decorative tendencies.

Among the new centers of rationalist orientation, the group of architects "Group 7", founded in 1936, has shown itself. Its emergence after Futurism was a new step in the development of Italian architecture. Among the members of this group stood out D. Terragni - the author of a dwelling house in Como (1927), L. Figini, D. Pollini, known for their architectural activities, especially after the Second World War, for the Olivetti firm in Yves Rea. The building of the Fiat plant in Turin (1927, by M. Trukko) with a test circuit on the roof is also worthy of attention. The R group in Rome, founded in 1928 by D. Minucchi, and the group in Turin led by A. Sartoris, were distinguished by their rationalist program.

The use of reinforced concrete, however, finally got its specific expression only with the beginning of the activity of the engineer P.L. Nervi, who used the form-building capabilities of this material in the staircases of stadiums in Florence and new vaulted hangar ceiling systems. With extraordinary constructive and artistic ingenuity, P.L. Nerzi, after the Second World War, developed a new vaulted system for covering exhibition and sports halls. A typical example is the Olympic Palace in Rome, which has a dome formed by curved intersecting reinforced concrete ribs, built using new technology.

The bold reinforced concrete structure of the bridges and the ceiling of the hall in Zurich (1939) distinguishes the work of the Swiss engineer R. Maillard, who, in collaboration with the architects G. Brechbugler, C. and R. Tam, laid the foundations of modern Swiss architecture in the 1920s and 1930s. In Spain, the principles of functionalism were guided by X. L. Sert and the architectural group GATEPAC.

England, which had a progressive tradition in the design of garden cities and cottages, took the path of functionalism in the 30s. In this direction, the members of the creative group "Teckton", headed by B. Lubetkin, who built a house in London in the shape of a double cross (1933), the Finsbury medical center and the pavilions of the London Zoo, stood out. The factories in Beeston (1930-1932, by O. Williams), as well as a department store in London (William Grabbtree), are distinguished by their expediency, constructive lightness and modernity of form.

His contribution to the development of English architecture was made by E. M. Fry, who collaborated with V. Gropius (school in Cambridge, 1936), and after the Second World War with Le Corbusier in the construction of the city of Chandigarh in India. Did you maintain constant contact with the CIAM? MARS (formed in 1931), founded by R. S. York. A large-scale urban planning project for Greater London (1940-1944) created by P. Abercrombie is also associated with new trends in English architecture. Its phased implementation begins after the Second World War with the construction of the first of 14 planned satellite cities - Stevenage and Harlow.

The influence of the functionalist school also affected the architecture of the relatively isolated Scandinavian countries, where functionalism and local traditions of northern architecture interpenetrated. This became the reason for the emergence of modern architecture here of a completely specific nature, which reflects the local climatic conditions, rich resources of natural building materials and the peculiar cultural traditions of individual countries.

This new wave in the architecture of the Nordic countries is associated with the Stockholm Exhibition in 1930, which demonstrated the widespread use of new building materials, structures and new forms created on their basis.

The main creator of the most progressive exhibits in this exhibition was E. G. Asplund, although his other works bear traces of neoclassicism, as can be seen in the example of the library (1920-1928) and the crematorium in Stockholm (1935-1940). The exhibition simultaneously showed the first examples of mature architectural solutions for dwellings. Their prototypes later were the groups of residential buildings in Danvikslippen and the Grandal complex (1944), built according to the project of S. Bakstrom and L. Reinius, who, together with the uncompromising supporter of the modern concept of architecture S. Markelius, were the authors of the project of the satellite town of Wellingby. built after the Second World War west of Stockholm.

The modern spirit of the Stockholm exhibition also influenced the architecture of Denmark, for which simplicity and severity of form, the use of unplastered bricks and reinforced concrete are most characteristic. An example of such architecture is the University of Aarhus (1932-1938, authors K. Fisker, K. F. Moller and P. Stegman) and most of the buildings of the famous Danish architect A. Jakob-sen, which in spatial isolation and compactness of volumes resemble some features traditional for the rural architecture of Denmark.

In the 1930s, the Finnish architect A. Aalto became the leading architect of the Scandinavian countries. From the very beginning, Aalto's work is a harmonious combination of architectural form and nature, the unity of material culture and is distinguished by a high artistic level. He combines the solution of rational requirements with an extraordinary understanding of the peculiarities of natural materials - stone and wood, their artistic and technical processing is still one of the most perfect ones.

The peculiarities of Aalto's work, already evident in the architecture of his early works at the library in Vyborg (1927-1935) and the sanatorium in Paimo (1929-1933), quickly became characteristic of the entire architecture of the northern countries. The further development of Aalto's creativity can be shown on the example of the Villa Mayrea and the Finnish Pavilion at the World Exhibition in New York, where Aalto, instead of the generally accepted rectangular system, proposed a curved plan and a complex structure of enclosing surfaces, which created the impression of a space full of dynamics. Its post-war buildings are based on the same principle, for example, the cultural center in Helsinki and the cathedral near Imatra in the mid-50s.

The architecture of the Finnish architects A. Er-va and K. and H. Siren, the authors of the famous garden city of Tipiola (1954-1960) near Helsinki, who, with their subsequent works, created an idea of modern Finnish architecture, had a similar character. Other Finnish architects also relied on the principles of the international style - A. Blomsted, E. Huttunen, Lingren, who worked in the same way as Aalto did after the Second World War. Finnish architecture from the 30s to the present is a harmonious combination of local traditions and principles of functionalism, is distinguished by the unity of material, technical and artistic culture and a perfect solution to the issue of the relationship between architecture and the surrounding nature. Here, just as in Sweden, the solution of interiors, furniture and various architectural details reaches a high level, creating a kind of northern style, which after the Second World War spreads to other countries. These features of Finnish architecture have become a significant contribution to the development of modern world building culture, first of all, by the natural connection with the nature of the newly created urban planning and architectural complexes.

A new group of countries, where in the late 1920s the principles of the rationalist concept of architecture began to be used, were Poland, Hungary and Romania. In Poland, this was associated with the group "Present" and the magazine "Blok". Its members were B. and S. Brukalski, B. Lakhert, J. Shanaets, the most active were E. and S. Syrkusy, the creators of the residential buildings "VSM" in Warsaw. Sh. Syrkus and Y. Khmelevsky are also the authors of the "Functional Warsaw" project (1934). In Hungary, supporters of functionalism were F. Molnar, J. Fischer and M. Mayer, according to whose designs a number of villas and tenement houses were built in Budapest. The immigrants from Hungary were M. Breuer and Mogol-Nagy, who, since the 1920s, constantly worked in other countries. Among the Romanian architects, one should note M. and Y. Ianchu, H. Creanga, A. Chinescu - the authors of apartment buildings in Bucharest, which are complex dismembered volumes.

Bulgaria and Yugoslavia found themselves somewhat apart from this direction in the development of world architecture. New designs and functional systems were rarely used here. I. Popov, N. Diulgerov and S. Ovcharov in Sofia came closest to functionalism. In Yugoslavia, one can note the work of 10. Neidhardt, a student of Le Corbusier, N. Dobrovich, who studied in Paris, and E. Ravnik-ra. Although the international style in these countries was represented by only a few buildings, here it also developed independently.

In the 30s in the United States, almost independently of the currents of modern architecture in Europe, a second major center for the development of architecture emerged. Strong rationalistic tendencies overcame the eclecticism that existed here and the influence of the Paris School of Fine Arts. There was a revival of the traditions of the Chicago School in the form of "record" technicism, in the spirit of which began an intensive restructuring of the centers of the largest American cities and the massive industrial construction of typical cottages on the outskirts of the city. Their construction was carried out within the framework of the so-called new course of the Roosevelt government simultaneously with large-scale landscaping, the construction of energy and transport systems on the river. Tennessee. Of particular note is the Empire State Building, at that time the tallest administrative building (398 m), and the Rockefeller Center skyscraper complex.

The closest to European architecture was the building of the Museum of Modern Art in New York (1939, authors P. L. Goodwin and E. D. Stone) with a fully glazed facade. An even more striking manifestation of the existence of rationalistic tendencies in American architecture in the 1930s was industrial buildings.

New York, with its skyscrapers centered on Manhattan, was a typical example of American architecture in the 1930s. Their forms almost coincide with a century-old fantastic proposal by E. S. Field, which he called "Historic Monument of American Architecture." In the mid-1930s, the SOM group was founded (L. Skidmore, N.A. Owings, D. Merrill), the main works of which date back to the post-war period, as well as the work of G. Banshaft, M. Abramovich and W. K. Garrison.

The second trend, which from the very beginning of the XX century. oriented American architecture in a progressive direction, associated with the creative, theoretical and pedagogical activities of F. L. Wright, which reached its culmination in the 30s. F.L. Wright remained unaffected by the psychosis of technicalism and persistently strove to create an artistic image in which romantic motives sometimes sounded, to maximize the fusion of architecture with the environment.

The main intermediaries in the spread of functionalist principles in America were the progressive European architects who emigrated from Europe in the 1930s, mainly before the outbreak of World War II. They played a significant role in the formation here in the 40s of various concepts and approaches, sometimes opposite in their principles, but which still characterize the architecture of this continent to this day.

Already in the 1920s, E. Mendelssohn moved to the USA from Germany, R. Neutra from Austria, known as the author of luxurious country houses (Kaufman Desert House, 1964), by their decision very close to Wright's understanding of organic architecture; from Finland E. Saarinen, who in the 1950s attracted attention by the breadth of his creative expression - starting with the General Motors technical center in Michigan (1951-1957), called "industrial Versailles", through the soaring shell of the TWA airport building in New -York to the unusually finely designed buildings of the university dormitory in Nyo Haven (1958-1962), located near the historical monuments of architecture. In the 1930s, they were joined by Mies van der Rohe, V. Gropius, Mogol-Nagy, IA Olbers, who skillfully combined their clear idea of the necessary expediency of architecture with the solution of artistic and aesthetic problems. L. Sert emigrated from Spain. These architects had a decisive influence not only on the nature of American architecture, but also on the conceptual orientation of higher education institutions, many of which they headed up until the 1960s.

The European functionalist school had a similar influence in the countries of South America, where architecture until the 30s drowned in eclecticism with echoes of the Portuguese Baroque. The foundations of modern Brazilian architecture were laid by the “Manifesto of Functionalism” (1925), written by G. Varshavchik. In the late 1930s, the works of Brazilian architects L. Costa, O. Niemeyer and A. Reidy appeared - the authors of the high-rise building of the Ministry of Health and Education in Rio de Janeiro (1937-1943), the design of which was consulted by Le Corbusier. The buildings designed by O. Niemeyer in Pampulha, whose architecture was distinguished by a special poetic understanding of the possibilities of reinforced concrete, already indicated the nature of the architecture of the future new capital of Brasilia, based on the urban planning scheme (1956, by L. Costa), bearing the features of classicism. The construction was basically completed in the late 50s according to the designs of O. Niemeyer and designer H. V. Garcia. The architecture of these buildings is distinguished by stylistic clarity, almost antique monumentality and simplicity.

Mexican architecture has been influenced by functionalist ideas since the 30s. They were interpreted in a peculiar way by H.O. Gorman, H.M. de Velasco and other Mexican architects when designing university, public and sports facilities in Mexico City, among which the Central Library building (1952) stands out for its monumental mosaics on the facade. Wall paintings by D. Rivera and D. Siquei-rosa are closely connected with modern Mexican architecture. New paths in modern Mexican architecture in the mid-1950s were also opened by the Spanish architect F. Candela with his thin-walled shells of a dynamic form, for example, near the buildings of laboratories, cathedrals and restaurants in Mexico City. In Venezuela, the representative of this orientation was KR Villanueva, the main author of the university campus in Caracas, the construction of which began in the early 50s.

European functionalism had a significant impact on the architecture of Japan. Bearers of this influence were Japanese architects who worked in Europe in the 1930s, especially for Le Corbusier, as well as F.L. Wright, A. Raymond and other architects who designed for Japan. Manifesto of the International Architectural Union, which met in Kyoto (1927), works of T. Muran, M. Yamada. and especially K-Maekawa and Ya-Sakakura, who collaborated with Le Corbusier, helped the Japanese architecture of the 1920s and 1930s to free itself from local decorative romanticism and the influence of the New Art (Art Nouveau). At first, the nature of Japanese architecture was similar to the European understanding of constructivism (the dental school in Tokyo, 1934, by B. Yamaguchi), but after the Second World War, unlike Europe, where the classical heritage was practically ignored due to the rapid development of modernist trends, Japanese architects remain are faithful to ancient traditions when creating a unique, but even then modern architecture.